Carolina Coach Company. That ruling had explicitly repudiated the concept of " separate but equal " in the realm of interstate bus travel. Chaired by the South Carolina Democrat J. Monroe Johnson the ICC had failed to implement its own ruling. James Farmer , head of CORE, responded to Kennedy saying, "We have been cooling off for years, and if we cooled off any more, we'd be in a deep freeze. An unknown number were arrested in other Southern towns.
Freedom Riders
It is estimated that almost people participated in one or more Freedom Rides. During the summer of , Freedom Riders also campaigned against other forms of racial discrimination. They sat together in segregated restaurants, lunch counters and hotels. This was especially effective when they targeted large companies, such as hotel chains. Fearing boycotts in the North, the hotels began to desegregate their businesses. In mid-June, a group of Freedom Riders had scheduled to end their ride in Tallahassee, Florida , with plans to fly home from the Tallahassee Municipal Airport.
They were provided a police escort to the airport from the city's bus facilities. At the airport, they decided to eat at the Savarin restaurant that was marked "For Whites Only".
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Although the restaurant was privately owned, it was leased from the county government. Canceling their plane reservations, the Riders decided to wait until the restaurant re-opened so they could be served. During this time, hostile crowds gathered, threatening violence.
On June 16, , the Freedom Riders were arrested in Tallahassee for unlawful assembly. City of Tallahassee, named for Israel S. Dresner , a rabbi among the group arrested.
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After making the public statement that he would "meet violence with violence," since the federal government would not protect his community from racial attacks he had been suspended by the NAACP national board over the objections of Williams' local membership.
Williams continued his work against segregation however, but now had massive opposition in both black and white communities. Some SNCC staff members sympathized with the idea of armed self-defense, although many on the ride to Monroe saw this as an opportunity to prove the superiority of Gandhian nonviolence over the use of force. The Freedom Riders in Monroe were brutally attacked by white supremacists with the approval of local police. Police and white supremacists roamed the town shooting at black civilians, who returned the gunfire.
Robert F. Williams fortified the black neighborhood against attack and in the process briefly detained a white couple who had gotten lost there. The police accused Williams of kidnapping and called in the state militia and FBI to arrest him, in spite of the couple being quickly released. Certain he would be lynched, Williams fled and eventually found refuge in Cuba.
Movement lawyers, eager to disengage from the situation, successfully urged the Freedom Riders not to practice the normal "jail-no bail" strategy in Monroe.
Local officials, also apparently eager to de-escalate, found demonstrators guilty but immediately suspended their sentences. Williams, including Mae Mallory. Monroe legal defense committees were popular around the country, but ultimately Lowry and Mallory served prison sentences. In , their convictions were vacated due to the exclusion of black citizens from the jury selection. On September 13, , a group of 15 Episcopal priests including 3 black priests entered the Jackson, Mississippi Trailways bus terminal. Upon entering the coffee shop, they were stopped by two policemen, who asked them to leave.
The group included year-old Reverend Robert L Pierson. After the case against the priests was dismissed on May 21, , they sought damages against the police under the Civil Rights Act of Ray , which held that the police were protected by qualified immunity. By September it had been over three months since the filing of the petition by Robert Kennedy. This would mobilize hundreds, perhaps thousands, of nonviolent demonstrators to the capital city to apply pressure on the ICC and the Kennedy administration.
The idea was pre-empted when the ICC finally issued the necessary orders just before the end of the month. After the new ICC rule took effect, passengers were permitted to sit wherever they pleased on interstate buses and trains; "white" and "colored" signs were removed from the terminals; racially segregated drinking fountains, toilets, and waiting rooms serving interstate customers were consolidated; and the lunch counters began serving all customers, regardless of race.
The widespread violence provoked by the Freedom Rides sent shock waves through American society. People worried that the Rides were evoking widespread social disorder and racial divergence, an opinion supported and strengthened in many communities by the press. The press in white communities condemned the direct action approach that CORE was taking, while some of the national press negatively portrayed the Riders as provoking unrest.
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At the same time, the Freedom Rides established great credibility with black and white people throughout the United States and inspired many to engage in direct action for civil rights. Perhaps most significantly, the actions of the Freedom Riders from the North, who faced danger on behalf of southern black citizens, impressed and inspired the many black people living in rural areas throughout the South.
They formed the backbone of the wider civil rights movement, who engaged in voter registration and other activities. Southern black activists generally organized around their churches, the center of their communities and a base of moral strength. The Freedom Riders helped inspire participation in other subsequent civil rights campaigns, including voter registration throughout the South, freedom schools , and the Black Power movement. At the time, most black Southerners had been unable to register to vote, due to state constitutions, laws and practices that had effectively disfranchised most of them since the turn of the 20th century.
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For instance, white administrators supervised reading comprehension and literacy tests that highly educated black people could not pass. In celebration of the 50th anniversary of the Freedom Rides, Oprah Winfrey invited all living Freedom Riders to join her TV program to celebrate their legacy. The episode aired on May 4, On May 6—16, , 40 college students from across the United States embarked on a bus ride from Washington, D. On May 19—21, , the Freedom Rides were commemorated in Montgomery, Alabama, at the new Freedom Ride museum in the old Greyhound Bus terminal, where some of the violence had taken place in On May 22—26, , the arrival of the Freedom Rides in Jackson, Mississippi was commemorated with a 50th Anniversary Reunion and Conference in the city.
In late , Palestinian activists, inspired by the freedom riders, used the same methods in Israel by boarding a bus from which they were excluded. It included an interview with James Farmer. The title of the film Freedom Writers is an explicit pun on the Freedom Riders, a fact made clear in the film itself which references the campaign.
It included interviews and news footage from the Freedom Riders movement. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. This is the latest accepted revision , reviewed on 18 December For other uses, see Freedom Riders disambiguation. This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Washington, D. Louis, Illinois Sikeston, Missouri [54] [note 2]. Denotes location a Freedom Rider tested the compliance of the Boynton v.
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Moody Jr. Harbour , Frederick Leonard , Lester G. McKinnie, William B. Smith, Fances L. Wilson and Clarence M. Fankhauser, Franklin W. Kale, Raymond B. Randolph Jr. Jenkins, Robert L. Jenkins and Ralph Edward Washington. Britt, Stokely Carmichael , Gwendolyn T. Woods Jr. Price and Joseph Lee Ross. Green Jr. Brown, William Walter Hansen Jr. Carey, Francis L. Jorgensen, Allan Levine, Orville B. Luster, Charles G. Sellers and John R. Bohannon and Norma Wagner. Archived from the original on February 17, Retrieved December 12, Congress of Racial Equality.
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